91Ó°ÊÓ

The alumni office wishes to determine whether students who attend a reception with alumni just before graduation are more likely to donate money within the next two years. a. Describe a study based on a sample of students that would allow the alumni office to conclude that attending the reception causes future donations but that it is not possible to generalize this result to all students. b. Describe a study based on a sample of students that does not allow fundraisers to conclude that attending receptions causes future donations but does allow them to generalize to all students. c. Describe a study based on a sample of students that allows fundraisers to conclude that attending the reception causes future donations and also allows them to generalize to all students.

Step by step solution

01

Study A

A study which shows causation but doesn't allow for generalization to all students could be an experimental study. This study would include a random selection of students who are invited to the reception. Their donation habits are tracked after graduation. This proves cause because it is probable that the cause of the donations is attending the reception. However, it's not possible to generalize the results to all students because the sample is not representative of the whole student population.

02

Study B

A study that doesn't show causation but allows for generalization could be an observational study. All students are included in the study. By taking into account those who attended the reception and those who didn't, and then tracking their donation habits, you can avoid inferring causation. This is because there could be other factors influencing students' decision to donate. However, generalization is likely because the data will be representative of all students.

03

Study C

A study that shows both cause and allows generalization would need to be an experimental study with a representative sample of all students. Invite a random, representative sample of students to the reception. Ensure that the sample mirrors the make-up or characteristics of the wider student body. Track donation habits of those students after graduation. If those who attended the reception are more likely to donate, it can be inferred that the reception caused the future donations. This can also be generalized to all students because the sample was representative.

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Key Concepts

These are the key concepts you need to understand to accurately answer the question.

Causation

Causation refers to a relationship between two events where one event is the result of the occurrence of the other event. This implies a cause and effect connection. In research contexts, showing causation can be challenging because you need to ensure that the observed effect is directly attributable to the cause and not influenced by other factors.
For a study to demonstrate causation, researchers often conduct experiments. An experiment designed to show causation would include manipulating one variable to see if it directly affects another.

• For example, inviting a group of students to attend a reception and then tracking their donation habits could imply causation if attendance at the reception leads to increased donations.
• This suggests that the reception was the cause of higher donation rates.

However, the challenge lies in controlling for all other potential influencing factors to make a solid causal claim.

Generalization

Generalization is the process of applying findings from a study to a larger population. To generalize findings, researchers must ensure that the sample accurately represents the broader population.
In the context of educational studies, researchers can make generalizations when their sample size is varied enough to reflect the diversity of the entire student body.

• If a study includes a representative sample of students, researchers might generalize findings to all students.
• Generalizing means that the results found in the study are expected to hold true for the much larger group.

However, this process can be tricky. It's important to avoid biased samples, which can mislead generalizations. Researchers need to consider various demographic factors, such as age, gender, and socio-economic status, to ensure accurate generalization.

Observational Study

An observational study involves assessing variables without manipulating them. This type of study differs from experimental research, which involves intervention and altering variables.
Observational studies are particularly useful when researchers need to understand relationships without seeking to establish causation. These studies are less controlled than experiments, so they can't definitively prove causation, but they can show associations or correlations.

• An observational study that looks at students attending a reception and later donating money can suggest whether a relationship exists without implying causation.
• For example, a researcher might note that students who attended were more likely to donate, but other factors could also account for this.

The strength of observational studies lies in their ability to reflect real-world situations and include larger populations, making the findings more generalizable.