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Chapter 6: Problem 5

Infants younger than six months who have normal hearing can readily distinguish between acoustically similar sounds that are used as part of any language not only those used in the language spoken by the people who raise them. Young adults can readily distinguish between such sounds only in languages that they regularly use. It is known that the physiological capacity to hear begins to deteriorate after infancy. So the observed difference in the abilities of infants and young adults to distinguish between acoustically similar speech sounds must be the result of the physiological deterioration of hearing. The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument (A) sets an arbitrary cutoff point of six months for the age below which infants are able to distinguish acoustically similar speech sounds (B) does not explain the procedures used to measure the abilities of two very different populations (C) ignores the fact that certain types of speech sounds occur in almost all languages (D) assumes that what is true of a group of people taken collectively is also true of any individual within that group (E) takes a factor that might contribute to an explanation of the observed difference as a sufficient explanation for that difference

Short Answer

Expert verified
(E) takes a factor that might contribute to an explanation of the observed difference as a sufficient explanation for that difference

Step by step solution

01

Understand the Argument

The argument claims that infants can distinguish between acoustically similar sounds from any language, while adults can do so only for regularly used languages. It attributes this difference to the deterioration of hearing abilities after infancy.
02

Identify the Conclusion

The conclusion drawn in the argument is that the difference in ability between infants and adults is due to physiological hearing deterioration.
03

Examine the Flaw

The flaw here involves the assumption that hearing deterioration is the sole explanation for the observed difference in sound discrimination abilities between infants and adults.
04

Analyze the Options

Evaluate each option to determine which one identifies the flaw. Options (A) and (B) are about arbitrary cutoffs and methodology, which aren't relevant to the main logical issue. Option (C) is incorrect because commonality of some sounds does not address the flawed causal claim. Option (D) concerns generalization on an individual basis, unrelated to the argument's main logical error. Option (E) correctly identifies the flaw: mistaking a potential contributing factor (hearing deterioration) for a complete explanation.

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Key Concepts

These are the key concepts you need to understand to accurately answer the question.

Sound Discrimination
Sound discrimination refers to the ability to distinguish between different sounds, even if they are very similar. This skill is essential for language development, as it helps in understanding and producing sounds correctly.
Infants have a remarkable ability to recognize subtle differences in sound. This is not confined to a single language but extends to all human languages.
Their ability to perceive these nuances is at its peak at this young age, which is crucial for language acquisition as they grow. Sound discrimination in infants is exceptionally high because they can discern between phonetic differences that they might never encounter in the language spoken around them. As they grow older, especially if exposed to only one or a few languages, they lose some of this ability, focusing more on the sounds relevant to their language environment.
Hence, infants are like linguistic sponges, ready to absorb a wide range of phonetic sounds from around the world.
Infant Learning
Infant learning is a critical phase where humans are exceptionally receptive to new information. During this period, infants learn primarily through observation and experimentation, often without explicit instruction.
They are adept at picking up patterns from their environment, and this includes the sounds they hear.
Their brains are wired to capture phonetic variations, which helps them in distinguishing similar sounds. The first year of life is when significant cognitive growth occurs. Babies learn not only the sounds of their native language but also recognize differences in other languages. This wide-ranging ability provides the foundation for future language skills.
As they interact with caregivers and their environment, infants continuously refine their sound discrimination abilities, setting the stage for language development and cognition.
Hearing Deterioration
Hearing deterioration typically begins subtly after infancy. This natural process involves a gradual decrease in auditory capacity, impacting the ability to distinguish between sounds over time. Although it starts early, noticeable effects on sound discrimination may become evident later in life.
This decline is a normal part of aging, affecting everyone to some degree. In the argument, hearing deterioration is presented as the main reason for the difference in sound discrimination abilities between infants and adults. However, this overlooks other factors, such as the focus adults place on the languages they regularly use, which plays a significant role.
While it's true that physiological changes contribute to decreased auditory capacity, it's important to consider how language exposure and usage can shape listening capabilities.
Argument Analysis
Argument analysis involves examining the structure of a logical statement to assess its validity. In this context, analyzing the argument helps understand the reasoning behind the claim that hearing deterioration is the sole factor in sound discrimination ability differences. The flaw in the argument lies in attributing the entirety of sound discrimination differences to hearing deterioration.
While this is part of the explanation, it is not sufficient alone. Factors such as language exposure and the brain's adaptation to commonly used sounds play significant roles. Identifying that the reasoning overlooks these factors, and instead makes a hasty generalization, is crucial.
Successful argument analysis identifies weak points, like the mistaken belief that hearing deterioration is the only cause, enabling more informed interpretations of complex issues.

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Most popular questions from this chapter

Which one of the following situations most closely parallels that of the Oneida delegates in refusing to accept a lump-sum payment of \(\$ 60,000\) ? (A) A university offers a student a four-year scholarship with the stipulation that the student not accept any outside employment; the student refuses the offer and attends a different school because the amount of the scholarship would not have covered living expenses. (B) A company seeking to reduce its payroll obligations offers an employee a large bonus if he will accept early retirement; the employee refuses because he does not want to compromise an outstanding worker's compensation suit. (C) Parents of a teenager offer to pay her at the end of the month for performing weekly chores rather than paying her on a weekly basis; the teenager refuses because she has a number of financial obligations that she must meet early in the month. (D) A car dealer offers a customer a \(\$ 500\) cash payment for buying a new car; the customer refuses because she does not want to pay taxes on the amount, and requests instead that her monthly payments be reduced by a proportionate amount. (E) A landlord offers a tenant several months rent-free in exchange for the tenant's agreeing not to demand that her apartment be painted every two years, as is required by the lease; the tenant refuses because she would have to spend her own time painting the apartment.

People who accuse the postal service of incompetence and inefficiency while complaining of the proposed five-cent increase in postal rates do not know a bargain when they see one. Few experiences are more enjoyable than reading a personal letter from a friend. Viewed in this way, postal service is so underpriced that a five-cent increase is unworthy of serious debate. The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument (A) suggests that the postal service is both competent and efficient, but does not establish how competence and efficiency should be measured (B) claims that the proposed increase is insignificant but does not say at what level the increase would be worthy of serious debate (C) confuses the value of the object delivered with the value of delivering that object (D) appeals to an outside authority for support of a premise that should be established by argument (E) fails to establish whether or not the critics of the postal service are employees of the postal service

It might seem that an airline could increase profits by reducing airfares on all its flights in order to encourage discretionary travel and thus fill planes. Offers of across-the-board discount fares have, indeed, resulted in the sale of large numbers of reduced-price tickets. Nevertheless such offers have, in the past, actually cut the airline's profits. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy described above? (A) Fewer than 10 percent of all air travelers make no attempt to seek out discount fares. (B) Fares for trips between a large city and a small city are higher than those for trips between two large cities even when the distances involved are the same. (C) Across-the-board discounts in fares tend to decrease revenues on flights that are normally filled, but they fail to attract passengers to unpopular flights. (D) Only a small number of people who have never before traveled by air are persuaded to do so on the basis of across-the-board discount fares. (E) It is difficult to devise an advertising campaign that makes the public aware of across-the-board discount fares while fully explaining the restrictions applied to those discount fares.

Some people take their moral cues from governmental codes of law; for them, it is inconceivable that something that is legally permissible could be immoral. Those whose view is described above hold inconsistent beliefs if they also believe that (A) law does not cover all circumstances in which one person morally wrongs another (B) a legally impermissible action is never morally excusable (C) governmental officials sometimes behave illegally (D) the moral consensus of a society is expressed in its laws (E) some governmental regulations are so detailed that they are burdensome to the economy 17\. Certain instruments used in veterinary surgery can be made either of stainless steel or of nylon. In a study of such instruments, 50 complete sterilizations of a set of nylon instruments required \(3.4\) times the amount of energy used to manufacture that set of instruments, whereas 50 complete sterilizations of a set of stainless steel instruments required \(2.1\) times the amount of energy required to manufacture that set of instruments. If the statements above are true, each of the following could be true EXCEPT: (A) The 50 complete sterilizations of the nylon instruments used more energy than did the 50 complete sterilizations of the stainless steel instruments. (B) More energy was required for each complete sterilization of the nylon instruments than was required to manufacture the nylon instruments. (C) More nylon instruments than stainless steel instruments were sterilized in the study. (D) More energy was used to produce the stainless steel instruments than was used to produce the nylon instruments. (E) The total cost of 50 complete sterilizations of the stainless steel instruments was greater than the cost of manufacturing the stainless steel instruments.

Crimes in which handguns are used are more likely than other crimes to result in fatalities. However, the majority of crimes in which handguns are used do not result in fatalities. Therefore, there is no need to enact laws that address crimes involving handguns as distinct from other crimes. The pattern of flawed reasoning displayed in the argument above most closely resembles that in which one of the following? (A) Overweight people are at higher risk of developing heart disease than other people. However, more than half of all overweight people never develop heart disease. Hence it is unnecessary for physicians to be more careful to emphasize the danger of heart disease to their overweight patients than to their other patients. (B) Many people swim daily in order to stay physically fit. Yet people who swim daily increase their risk of developing ear infections. Hence people who want to remain in good health are better off not following fitness programs that include swimming daily. (C) Most physicians recommend a balanced diet for those who want to remain in good health. Yet many people find that nontraditional dietary regimens such as extended fasting do their health no serious harm. Therefore, there is no need for everyone to avoid nontraditional dietary regimens. (D) Foods rich in cholesterol and fat pose a serious health threat to most people. However, many people are reluctant to give up eating foods that they greatly enjoy. Therefore, people who refuse to give up rich foods need to spend more time exercising than do other people. (E) Many serious health problems are the result of dietary disorders. Yet these disorders are often brought about by psychological factors. Hence people suffering from serious health problems should undergo psychological evaluation.
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