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Chapter 1: Problem 96

Causation does not necessarily mean that there is no confounding variable. Give an example of an association between two variables that have a causal relationship AND have a confounding variable.

Short Answer

Expert verified
An example is the relationship of ice cream sales and swimming incidents which are associated and have what seems to be a causational relation. However, summer season can be considered a confounding variable since it influences both; during summer, people are likely to swim more (leading to more incidents) and also consume more ice cream.

Step by step solution

01

Understanding Key Concepts

In a causation relationship, changes in one variable are responsible for changes in another variable. An association between two variables means that there is a relationship between the two, but not necessarily a cause-and-effect one. Confounding variable refers to a third variable, which may distort the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
02

Identify a Real-World Association

Think about a real-world situation in which two variables are associated. For example, consider the relationship between ice cream sales and swimming incidents.
03

Identify the Causal Relationship

The first step is to identify the variables thought to be causally related. Ice cream sales increase, swimming incidents increase.
04

Identify the Confounding Variable

In examining this association, a confounding variable that affects both variables can be identified. The confounding variable here can be summer season. This is because during summer, people are likely to swim more (which could lead to more incidents) and also consume more ice cream.

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